Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana’s first president in the post-colonial republican era initiated several power boosting projects to enhance the country’s industrial and research programs.
Sadly the most important yet powerful energy source, The Kwabenya Nuclear Reactor Project was quickly abandoned when he was ousted.
But in 2022, under the leadership of President Akuffo Addo (soon to be ex-president after serving 8 years in office), Ghana’s nuclear dream looks possible.
Before I continue, let’s delve into the processes of Nuclear Science, the good, bad and ugly side of this enormous power generation.
Nuclear energy began to spread in earnest after the 1953 “Atoms for Peace” speech by United States President Dwight Eisenhower.
Knowledge about nuclear fission had previously been kept secret, but it was released after the speech and several countries received U.S. support to build their own nuclear infrastructure.
The first generation of nuclear power plants was mostly built between 1955 and the late 1960s.
At that time, plants still had an electrical output of 300 megawatts.
For comparison, a 1000-megawatt reactor generates per year roughly the amount of power needed to supply the city of Vienna.
In the 1950s, first-generation nuclear technology already included a containment to protect against accidents, emergency cooling systems and triple parallel electronic control and safety systems.
This means that if two out of three measured variables deviate, countermeasures are taken.
These “2-out-of-3” systems are used in all complex technologies (aviation, high-speed trains, railway control, space travel). Today the nuclear power plants of this generation are all shut down and for the most part, dismantled.
At the beginning of the 1990s, China, Germany, Russia, South Korea and the U.S. collaborated to standardize official approval procedures.
Pressurized water reactors (Generation III) with an output of around 1,000 to 1,500 megawatts were recommended.
The safety and protection systems were completely digitized.
After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the U.S., containment systems were redesigned to withstand civil aircraft crashes.
Additional safety installations (a ceramic basin or core catcher to contain a potential meltdown) or external pressure vessel-flooding mechanisms were added.
The lower half of the pressure vessel is cooled with water from the outside to prevent it from melting from the inside.
As of the end of 2020, 443 nuclear power plants were in operation worldwide. Around two-thirds of them use pressurized water reactors.
A pressurized water reactor consists of a thick-walled (25 centimeter) pressure vessel in which water is heated at approximately 320 degrees.
Then the heat is transferred to a second circuit, where the water turns into steam that drives a turbine coupled to an electricity generator.
Some 50 third-generation nuclear power plants are already in operation or under construction worldwide, and another 150 to 200 plants are in the planning or preparation phases.
China alone is planning 44 new nuclear power plants, and Russia 24.
The United Arab Emirates was the first country in the Arab world to put four nuclear power plants into operation and other countries in the region also want to follow suit.
Generation IV reactors (with an output of around 1,000 megawatts) and Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are considered the nuclear power plants of the future.
Currently, 13 of the largest industrial nations (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Japan, Korea, Russia, South Africa, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the U.S.) and the EU as a whole are collaborating to make Generation IV reactors ready for the market.
These systems use the fuel more efficiently by using more of the uranium built into the reactor core.
They are economically competitive, produce less radioactive waste and are even safer.
Efficiency improves safety.
Unlike coal or gas power plants, nuclear power plants do not produce any carbon emissions.
How Does a Nuclear Reactor work?
Nuclear reactors are, fundamentally, large kettles, which are used to heat water to produce enormous amounts of low-carbon electricity.
They come in different sizes and shapes, and can be powered by a variety of different fuels.
The Ringhals Nuclear Power Plant, home to four reactors capable of generating 20% of Sweden’s electricity demand.
A nuclear reactor is driven by the splitting of atoms, a process called fission, where a particle (a ‘neutron’) is fired at an atom, which then fissions into two smaller atoms and some additional neutrons.
Some of the neutrons that are released then hit other atoms, causing them to fission too and release more neutrons.
This is called a chain reaction.
The fissioning of atoms in the chain reaction also releases a large amount of energy as heat.
The generated heat is removed from the reactor by a circulating fluid, typically water.
This heat can then be used to generate steam, which drives turbines for electricity production.
In order to ensure the nuclear reaction takes place at the right speed, reactors have systems that accelerate, slow or shut down the nuclear reaction, and the heat it produces.
This is normally done with control rods, which typically are made out of neutron-absorbing materials such as silver and boron.
Nuclear reactors come in many different shapes and sizes – some use water to cool their cores, whilst others use gas or liquid metal.
The most common power reactor types use water, with more than 90% of the world’s reactors being water-based.
Nuclear reactors are very reliable at generating electricity, capable of running for 24 hours a day for many months, if not years, without interruption, whatever the weather or season.
Additionally, most nuclear reactors can operate for very long periods of time – over 60 years in many cases.
In 2019, units 3&4 at the Turkey Point plant in Florida were the first reactors in the world to be licensed for 80 years of operation!
What Fuels a Nuclear Reactor?
A number of different materials can be used to fuel a reactor, but most commonly uranium is used.
Uranium is abundant, and can be found in many places around the world, including the oceans.
Other fuels, such as plutonium and thorium, can also be used.
Most of today’s reactors contain several hundreds of fuel assemblies, each having thousands of small pellets of uranium fuel.
A single pellet contains as much energy as there is in one tonne of coal.
A typical reactor requires about 27 tonnes of fresh fuel each year.
Nuclear fuel pellets are not much larger than a sugar cube.
Like any industry, the nuclear industry generates waste.
However, unlike many industries, nuclear power generates very little of it – and fully contains and manages what it does produce.
The vast majority of the waste from nuclear power plants is not very radioactive and for many decades has been responsibly managed and disposed of.
If nuclear power was used to supply a person’s electricity needs for an entire year, only about 5 grams of highly-radioactive waste would be produced, which is the same weight as a sheet of paper.
The used fuel which comes out of the reactor can be managed in different ways, including recycling for energy production or direct disposal.
As a matter of fact, many countries have been using recycled fuel for decades to partially fuel their reactors.
The Unacceptable Dark Side of Nuclear Energy
Nuclear fission power is not a climate solution. It may produce lower-carbon energy, but this energy comes with a great deal of risk.
Solar power, wind power, geothermal power, hybrid and electric cars, and aggressive energy efficiency are climate solutions that are safer, cheaper, faster, more secure, and less wasteful than nuclear power.
Currently there are 444 nuclear fission power plants in 30 countries worldwide, with another 63 and more plants potentially under construction.
Ten Points to Note Against Nuclear Energy
1. Nuclear Waste:
The waste generated by nuclear reactors remains radioactive for tens to hundreds of thousands of years.
Currently, there are no long-term storage solutions for radioactive waste, and most is stored in temporary, above-ground facilities.
These facilities are running out of storage space, so the nuclear industry is turning to other types of storage that are more costly and potentially less safe.
2. Nuclear proliferation:
There is great concern that the development of nuclear energy programs increases the likelihood of proliferation of nuclear weapons.
As nuclear fuel and technologies become globally available, the risk of these falling into the wrong hands is increasingly present.
To avoid weapons proliferation, it is important that countries with high levels of corruption and instability be discouraged from creating nuclear programs, and the US should be a leader in nonproliferation by not pushing for more nuclear power at home.
3. National Security
Nuclear power plants are a potential target for terrorist operations.
An attack could cause major explosions, putting population centers at risk, as well as ejecting dangerous radioactive material into the atmosphere and surrounding region.
Nuclear research facilities, uranium enrichment plants, and uranium mines are also potentially at risk for attacks that could cause widespread contamination with radioactive material.
4. Accidents
In addition to the risks posed by terrorist attacks, human error and natural disasters can lead to dangerous and costly accidents.
The 1986 Chernobyl disaster in Ukraine led to the deaths of 30 employees in the initial explosion and had since diffused a variety of negative health effects on thousands across Russia and Eastern Europe.
A massive tsunami bypassed the safety mechanisms of several power plants in 2011, causing three nuclear meltdowns at a power plant in Fukushima, Japan, resulting in the release of radioactive materials into the surrounding area.
In both disasters, hundreds of thousands were relocated, millions of dollars spent, and the radiation-related deaths are being evaluated to this day.
Cancer rates among populations living in proximity to Chernobyl and Fukushima, especially among children, rose significantly in the years after the accidents.
5. Cancer Risk
In addition to the significant risk of cancer associated with fallout from nuclear disasters, studies also show increased risk for those who reside near a nuclear power plant, especially for childhood cancers such as leukemia.
Workers in the nuclear industry are also exposed to higher than normal levels of radiation, and as a result are at a higher risk of death from cancer.
6. Energy Production
The 444 nuclear power plants currently in existence provide about 11% of the world’s energy.
Studies show that in order to meet current and future energy needs, the nuclear sector would have to scale up to around 14,500 plants.
Uranium, the most popular fuel for nuclear reactors, is energy-intensive to mine, and deposits discovered in the future are likely to be harder to get to to.
As a result, much of the net energy created would be offset by the energy input required to build and decommission plants and to mine and process uranium ore.
The same is true for any reduction in greenhouse gas emissions brought about by switching from coal to nuclear.
7. Not Enough Sites
Scaling up to 14,500 nuclear plants isn’t possible simply due to the limitation of feasible sites.
Nuclear plants need to be located near a source of water for cooling, and there aren’t enough locations in the world that are safe from droughts, flooding, hurricanes, earthquakes, or other potential disasters that could trigger a nuclear accident.
The increase in extreme weather events predicted by climate models only compounds this risk.
8. Cost
Unlike renewables, which are now the cheapest energy sources, nuclear costs are on the rise, and many plants are being shut down or in danger of being shut down for economic reasons.
Initial capital costs, fuel, and maintenance costs are much higher for nuclear plants than wind and solar, and nuclear projects tend to suffer cost overruns and construction delays.
The price of renewable energy has fallen significantly over the past decade, and it projected to continue to fall.
9. Competition with Renewable Energy
Investment in nuclear plants, security, mining infrastructure, etc. draws funding away from investment in cleaner sources such as wind, solar, and geothermal. Financing for renewable energy is already scarce, and increasing nuclear capacity will only add to the competition for funding.
10. Energy Dependence of Poor Countries
Going down the nuclear route would mean that poor countries, that don’t have the financial resources to invest in and develop nuclear power, would become reliant on rich, technologically advanced nations.
Alternatively, poor nations without experience in the building and maintaining of nuclear plants may decide to build them anyway.
Countries with a history of nuclear power use have learned the importance of regulation, oversight, and investment in safety when it comes to nuclear.
Dr. Peter Bradford of Vermont Law, a former member of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, writes:
“A world more reliant on nuclear power would involve many plants in countries that have little experience with nuclear energy, no regulatory background in the field and some questionable records on quality control, safety and corruption.”
The U.S. should lead by example and encourage poor countries to invest in safe energy technology.
Ghana’s Atomic Energy Dream
The Kwabenya Nuclear Reactor Project was established to introduce nuclear science and technology into the country and to exploit nuclear energy in its peaceful applications right after the development of the Akosombo dam for hydro power.
Dr. Nkrumah saw nuclear power as an energy source that would contribute significantly to the energy security which is much needed for rapid industrialisation for both the country and the continent as a whole.
This eventually initiated Ghana’s nuclear power agenda.
After his overthrow, the nuclear power agenda came to a halt and was only revisited during the electricity power crises of the 2000’s.
The administrations of John Agyekum Kufuor (2001-2009), John Evans Atta Mills (2009-2012), John Dramani Mahama (2012-2017) and Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo (2017 – date) have built on the progress made under Jerry John Rawlings’ second rule (1981-2001) in further contributing to policy development, human resource development through the Graduate School of Nuclear & Allied Sciences (SNAS), legislation and regulation of the nuclear industry in the country.
Since Ghana gained independence in 1957, the issue of further development and strengthening of Ghanaian statehood has arisen, which is impossible without building a strong economic system based on a developed industrial complex.
The choice of which industry to develop was predetermined – the nature generously strewed the Ghanaian land with bauxite deposits – the raw materials for the production of aluminum.
But for the industrial production and the development of the aluminium industry, a large amount of cheap electricity was required.
The government went in two ways:
– The first was to construct hydropower stations (a well-known Akosombo Dam project);
– The second was to develop an ultra-modern energy source at that time called nuclear energy.
Thus, on February 28th, 1961, in Moscow, the USSR and the Republic of Ghana signed an inter-governmental “Agreement for Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy”.
The agreement stipulated that the USSR would provide technical assistance to the Republic of Ghana in the construction of a nuclear research reactor, an isotope laboratory, a workshop and other auxiliary facilities in accordance with the project as well as the training of Ghanaian national personnel for the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
In order to implement it, the relevant Soviet organizations were obliged within 1962-1965:
– To carry out the design work, supply fuel elements to start up the reactor, equipment and instruments as well as materials not available in Ghana, required to construct an “IRT-2000” nuclear reactor (thermal power up to 2000 kW),
and one hot cell;
– To send Soviet specialists to Ghana for rendering technical assistance in selecting construction site, gathering basic data for designing, constructing the abovementioned reactor, assembling, adjusting and putting into operation equipment, supplied from the USSR, as well as to train Ghanaian specialists and supervise the operation of the reactor within one year after its start up;
– To assist in the foundation of the isotope laboratory with a capacity of 300 Ci per year (for finished products), a mechanical workshop and auxiliary facilities, boiler and refrigeration units, an electrical substation, a radioactive waste disposal station and other facilities (a total of 23 facilities) by performing the designing work;
– To provide advisory and consulting assistance to Ghanaian research organizations in developing their programmes for research and experimental work in the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy;
– To provide technical assistance to Ghana in the establishment of a Nuclear Research Centre;
– To accept Ghanaian specialists on the peaceful use of nuclear energy for training (internship) in the USSR.
On October 27th, 1961, as a follow-up to this Agreement, a contract was signed in Accra between the “Technopromexport” and the Ghanaian side, which provided for the obligations of the parties to supply equipment for the nuclear centre, a business trip to Ghana of Soviet specialists, and the admission of Ghanaian specialists for training to the Soviet relevant institutes.
The secondment of specialists and the supply of equipment had to be provided in time by agreement of the competent organizations of the parties.
The construction of the Nuclear Research Centre, as well as installation and commissioning works were carried out under the technical supervision of the Soviet specialists.
It is worth mentioning that, unlike the Akosombo Dam project, which actually pushed Ghana into the stranglehold of neocolonialism (Ghana’s government was compelled, by contract, to pay for over 50% of the cost of Akosombo’s construction, but the country was allowed only 20% of the power generated, the remaining 80% was generated for VALCO, owned by the American Kaiser Aluminum company) the Soviet Union did not pursue the goal of extracting super profits at the expense of the Ghanaian side.
On the contrary, the cost of the works provided under the Agreement was defined on the terms of the Soviet-Ghana Trade Agreement, which granted “the most-favoured nation treatment in respect of all matters related to trade between the two countries”.
So, on December 27th, 1965, a bilateral Protocol was signed in Moscow on the completion of the main supplies of equipment for the Nuclear Research Centre and on the fulfillment of the Contract’s obligations by the Soviet side.
It is important to say, that during constructing nuclear centres in developing countries, the Soviet Union paid serious attention to protecting the environment and establishing reliable control over the radiation situation around them.
That is why in April 1965 a radioactive fallout tracking station was commissioned in Ghana.
Soviet scientists assisted Ghanaian specialists and advised them during the construction, installation and commissioning of equipment, provided technical assistance during the construction of a radioactive fallout monitoring station, supervised compliance with the requirements of the Nuclear Research Centre project.
In 1965, a prominent Soviet atomic scientist Mr. Daniil Simonenko came to Ghana to lecture at the Legon University for the local atomic researchers.
By that time, all the parts of the fully functional reactor were transported to Accra ready to be assembled and launched.
But unfortunately, the Ghanaian dream for a better future failed to come true.
Due to overthrow of Kwame Nkrumah, the first President of independent Ghana, in 1966 the construction of the Nuclear Centre was frozen and postponed.
Only after almost 11 years, in 1976, the Government of Ghana appealed to the USSR to complete the construction of the Centre.
Considering that quite a long time has passed since the delivery of the reactor and the building of auxiliary facilities, the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission has raised the issue of upgrading the reactor with an increase in its capacity to 5000 kW.
The Soviet leadership decided to conduct a full-fledged audit of the equipment, as well as the previously constructed buildings and premises, and to resume work on the finishing of the Ghana Nuclear Research Centre with a modernized research reactor in the second phase.
However, in 1979 due to accumulated social tension over the difficult economic situation in the country, which resulted in the series of military coups, and the subsequent reorientation of the new Ghanaian leadership to internal problems, the cooperation in the nuclear field was mothballed once again for a very long time.
Only in 2015, during the second session of the Ghana-Russia Permanent Joint Commission for Cooperation (PJCC) the two countries returned to this vital issue and struck another intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in the field of the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
The document stipulates the elaboration of the Project Development Agreement, which is aimed at the construction of a Nuclear Power Plant and the Centre for Nuclear Science and Technology in Ghana.
Its realization was entrusted to the Joint Coordination Committee.
In August 2022, a delegation of the Russian State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom came to Ghana with a working visit and made a presentation of an ultra-modern nuclear technology no one else has at the world market: small modular reactors (SMRs) and floating nuclear power plants (FNPP).
The both sides agreed to establish a Joint Working Group to coordinate and exchange information regarding Russian modern technological solutions that would perfectly fit the Ghana’s strategic plans to move to cleaner energy.
Therefore Ghana has re-established her desire to use nuclear technology to generate electricity as part of her current energy mix.
The Ghana Nuclear Power Programme Organisation (GNPPO), made up of other governmental agencies, private companies, academia and these three key organisations: Nuclear Regulatory Authority (Regulator), Nuclear Power Ghana (Owner-Operator) and the Nuclear Power Institute (Technical Know-how and Support) is the technical workforce and advisory body in charge of the coordination for the nuclear power programme in Ghana.
GNPPO is chaired by the Ministry of Energy.
At the Nuclear Regulatory Authority, the directorate actively involved in the activities of the GNPPO is the Nuclear Installations Directorate
The NRA was established to regulate the civilian use of radiation in the country thus its role as the nuclear regulator is to assure the public that it is competent enough to ensure that all nuclear and radiological activities are being regulated in a safe and secure manner to ensure that the public is safe.
To this end, the Authority is building competencies for regulating the nuclear power which is commensurate with the stage of the project and the future.
Preparations so far include:
Setting up the regulatory infrastructure
Drafting of the relevant regulations, guides and documents.
Actively participating in the activities of the GNPPO as the regulator.
Receiving support from European Commission and other regulatory bodies to enhance its regulatory infrastructure and competencies.
There are three distinct phases in the introduction of a nuclear power programme into a country:
Phase 1: Considerations before a decision to launch a nuclear power programme is launched
Phase 2: Preparatory work for the construction of a nuclear power plant after a policy decision has been taken;
Phase 3: Activities to implement the first nuclear power plant.
Status of Ghana’s Nuclear Power Programme.
Ghana has officially transitioned into Phase 2 of her Nuclear Power Programme with the President H.E. Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo making the official declaration on 31 August 2022.
This comes two years after the Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review (INIR) Mission and a Follow-up INIR mission in January 2017 and October 2019 respectively.
An INIR Mission is an all-inclusive peer review by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to assist member states in assessing the status of their national infrastructure for the introduction of nuclear power.
Let me end with a quoted portion of Nkrumah’s speech, which he delivered when he laid the foundation stone for the construction of Ghana Atomic Reactor at Kwabenya, on 25 November 1964.
“We are gathered here this afternoon to mark the beginning of Ghana’s Atomic Reactor Centre.
This Centre, when completed, will enable Ghana to participate in the developments now taking place in Atomic Science.
In this way, we shall be equipped with the greater knowledge and the means to give richer service to our people and to Africa.
Nearly three years ago, we decided to build an Atomic Reactor in Ghana.
We were fully aware then that our motives might be misconstrued, for the setting up of an Atomic Reactor is the first practical step to building an Atomic bomb.
We have always stood for the use of fissionable material exclusively for peaceful ends.
We have consistently stood against the unnecessary proliferation of weapons of mass destructions, and with equal consistency for the abolition of such weapons.
Our sole motive in reaching the decision to build the centre, which you now see, rising before you, is to enable Ghana to take every advantage of the decisive methods of research and development, which mark our modern world.
It is essential to do this if we are to impart to our development the acceleration, which is required to break even with more advanced economies.
We have therefore been compelled to enter the field of Atomic energy, because this already promises to yield the greatest economic source of power since the beginning of man.
Our success in this field would enable us to solve the many sided problems which face us in all the spheres of our development in Ghana and in Africa.
We know that doubts have been expressed concerning the wisdom and practicability of our decision.
Many important but inconclusive reasons have been advanced to persuade us to abandon this project, but we are not persuaded.
Let me say that, in the age of Science & Technology, in this age of Atomic Revolution, neither Ghana nor Africa can afford to lag behind our nations, or to ignore the scientific development of our time.
Indeed, we start with certain definitive advantages over many nations, which have preceded us in the scientific revolution.
Allow me to remind you of the metaphysical problem of the flea.
You know that some key people have wondered with some concerns, whether assuming that there is a flea on our back, there is on the back of that a minor flea, and there is on the back of that minor flea, and upon on that back of the minor flea yet another mini-minor flea and so on, add infinitum.
A similar problem was expressed in the history of science about matter.
We, however, have not had to prove for ourselves that the atom can be split.
We have not had to discover that steam can produce energy or that water power can be used to generate electricity.
Indeed, we begin where many ended. We make our start from the great body of scientific and technological attainment, which is the common heritage of mankind. Beginning as loftily as we do, there is no reason for us to be timid in joining the forward march of knowledge.
We have a second reason in the field of Atomic research; it is known that the development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy can bring about a profound transformation in the life of mankind.
A socialist society more than any other, needs to bring about such profound changes in order to produce for all.
We in Ghana are committed to the building of an industrialized socialist society.
We cannot afford to sit still and be mere passive lookers.
We must ourselves take part in the pursuit of scientific and technological research as a means of providing the basis of our socialist society.
Socialism without science is void.
Already, the residential sites where the many Ghanaian scientists and engineers who will be engaged in this project would live, has been completed.
These young men and women who have received their specialist training in the Soviet Union and elsewhere would provide the basis for our corps of skilled specialist in nuclear science.
We are sending more Ghanaians abroad to acquire this specialist knowledge in training.
We have now embarked on the second stage of the project.
This will include the construction of the reactor itself and the construction of a monitoring station to ensure that no harmful radioactive substances are released or disseminated.
Radio-chemical laboratories are to be built where the elaborate procedures for processing radioactive substances will be carried out.
There will also be the many other ancillary buildings, which such a project calls for.
By 1966 the reactor itself should be in operation, and the Research Centre will start on the extensive programme of research for which all these elaborate and intricate preparations are being made.
Every stage of this complicated preparatory work has been carried through the aid of specialists and scientists provided by the Government of the Soviet Union.
At all stages there has been the closest and most friendly co-operation between Ghana and the Soviet Union.
The friendly relations between our two countries have been strengthened by the success of this common endeavor.
In 1961 I caused the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission to be established to guide and direct this enterprise.
Our Atomic Energy Commission now operates in close relationship with the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Only recently the Director and the Deputy Director of the Agency visited Ghana, and commented favorably on the breadth of vision of our plans.
We believe that the amount of energy, which can be generated in Ghana, can play a decisive role in the development of our industry, agriculture, health and other services.
Certainly, the foundations for the effective and rapid industrialisation of our country must rest on the provision of cheap and abundant power.
This is why we have placed our faith in the Volta River Project, which, perhaps, might never have been started without the personal interest of the late President Kennedy and the assistance of the United States Government.
Without the friendly relations between Ghana and the United States of America, this project would not have been possible.
As I speak, the Volta Lake has risen to two hundred and sixty feet (260), and it is confidently expected that power can be generated at Akosombo by the end of 1965.
The biggest consumer of this power will be the Aluminum Smelter, which is to be established by the Volta Aluminum Company at Tema.
I am glad to announce that the groundbreaking ceremony to mark the beginning of work will take place in ten days time, on Saturday, 5th December….”
References:
World Nuclear Association
SITN
Science in the News (SITN) is a Graduate Student Group at the Harvard Graduate School of the Arts and Sciences.
Jeremy M. Rich. Review of Osseo-Asare, Abena Dove, Atomic Junction: Nuclear Power in Africa after Independence. H-Africa, H-Net Reviews. April, 2021.
URL: http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=56388
